SAMPLE OF THE NEWSLETTER.

Culture Continues.

MANUSCRIPT WRITING:

The practice of worshipping religious scriptures led to the emergence of paintings in manuscripts. The word manuscript is derived from two Latin words manu and scripture which means 'band written'. The art of painting in manuscripts developed in the Majuli in response to the religious movement of Neo Vaishnavism under Shri Shankaradeva. The art of painting manuscripts was patronised by King Shiv Singha (1714 A.D.) in the royal court. The theme of all the manuscripts is the life and the events related to the life of lord Krishna. He is either the centre of the painting or is conceptually related to the content of manuscripts. Illustrations together with written literature helped in comprehending the text easily and make the text interesting. The illustrations are rich in color and detailed in expression.Paintings were done in the Sattra especially on the ceiling and walls of the namghar. There are references of paintings done on the walls, ceiling, beams and posts in the biographies and specimens of this type are still found in the Sattras.

STYLES

There are three styles of manuscript writing which are popular in this region :-

• Gargayan script- this style was popular during the reign of the Ahoms around Gargaon in the Sibsagar area. This type of script is very artistic in character. Well-educated writers were patronized by Ahom kings to practise this school of script.
• Kaithali - this style is associated with the Kayastha community. Suvankazri, Kitabar Manjari and Hasti Vidyarnava by Sukumar Bankayastha are the examples of this style script. In lower Assam, the kayasthas are known by the title of Lahkar and hence known as Lahkari script or letter.
• Bamunia- The writer of Bamunia scripts were the Sanskrit scholars or people associated with the study of Sanskrit(Devanagari) and Kamrupi script. In the script of their writing, there is an influence of the structure of Later-Brahmi or evoluted Kamarupi script.

PATRONAGE

This art of paintings and manuscript writing was patronized by the Ahoms and also by the Sattras. The Ahoms mostly patronized the translation and original works of secular nature, while the Sattras prepared the Assamese rendering of the Bhagwat Purana, the epics and other Puranas bearing religious significance and importance in the context of Neo Vaishnavism. The earliest illustrated manuscript of Assam is the Adya Dasama of the Bhagwat Purana rendered into Assamese by Shri Shankaradeva, Chitra Bhagwat (Manuscript with painting).

CRAFTMENSHIP:

• Likhak was mainly involved in copying from original text
• Khanikar prepared colors and illustrated the text

Together they prepare the surface of manuscripts, colors and write texts in different styles. Historically, the Ahom kings used to patronize and support their own copyists under the supervision of a royal officer called likhakar barua meaning superintendent of scribes. The royal court also attached a set of compartments called gandhiya bharal for the preservation of royal manuscripts records and letters of the palace. The various styles of manuscript writing were developing different artistic schools with different artists expressing their artistic penmanship. However, though there is influence of devangari, their script shows that they exhibit the style and structure of the modern Assamese script. In Bamunia script the letters show the similarity with Kaithali and Gargaon style. Example of this style of scriptwriting is to be found in Subodhini Tika of Bhagavata Gita by Sridhar swami or Bhakti Ratnavali by Mahadeva. The origin of the Assamese script developed from the Brahmi script. The script was associated with old Sanskrit language. The three stages of development of Assamese script are

1. Early Period: 5th to 13th Century
2. Middle Period: 14th to 19th Century
3. Present Period: From of 19th Century (with the publication of Arunodoi in 1846) to present time.

TRADITIONAL WRITING:

The writing of scripts on the bark of sanchi or tula pat had some specific rules -The writings were generally done from the reverse side of the leaf. A margin on all four sides was left on both sides of each sheet and on the left side of each leaf numbers were given as identification. Hence on each and every paper there was a small central whole with some empty portions called salabindha (Nabhi). 

Part of the word or sometimes part of the even letter or compound letters are found written separately in two lines. In the manuscript there was no use of coma (,), semi-colon (;), note of interrogation (?), note of exclamation (!) or other marks as in its modem form. They would only use stop marks indicated by single line (I) or double lines (II) and also by colon (:) marks. Stress was practically on pronunciation and often the sense or meaning of the writing was determined from the manner of pronunciation. In case of a mistake they did not remove it from the paper.

TRADITIONAL PROCESS:

MATERIALS REQUIRED:-

The prime materials used for manuscripts are:

1. Sanchi or Tula pat: bark of this tree is used for writing the manuscripts.
2. Homemade ink from Silikha (terminalia citrina), cow urine etc,.
3. Matimah (Phaseous raditus): for preparing the base of Sachi leaves.
4. Fibers from the fruit of the coconut tree: to make brush or pen for writing.
5. Reeds, thin bamboo, peacock feathers used as pen.

METHOD:-

Preparation of base: 

The tree of about 15 or 16 years' growth and 30 to 50 inches in girth measuring about 4 feet from the ground is selected. From this the bark is removed in strips which are 6 to 18 feet long and 3 to 27 inches wide. The strips are rolled up separately with the inner or white part inside and are dried in the sun for several days. They are then rubbed by hand on a board or some other hard substance so as to facilitate the removal of the outer or scaly portion of the bark. After this they are exposed to the dew for one night. Next morning the outer layer of the bark (nikari) is carefully removed, and the bark proper is cut into pieces of a convenient size varying between 9 to 27 inches in length and 3 to 18 inches in breadth. These are put into cold water for about an hour and the alkali is extracted, after which the surface is scraped smooth with a knife. They are often dried in the sun for half an hour and when perfectly dry, are rubbed with a piece of burnt brick. A paste prepared from the matimah (local pulse, Phaseous raditus) is then rubbed in and the bark is died yellow by means of yellow arsenic. This is followed again by sun drying, after which the strips are rubbed till they are smooth. The process is now complete and strips are ready for use. 

Preparation of ink: 

The ink is prepared mainly from silikha plant. A few fruits of similar variety may also be used to prepare ink. Fruits are kept in an earthen bowl filled with water for few days. The bowl in turn is kept in a non porous basin for a few nights. After a few days, the water turns black and percolates through earthen bowl and gets collected in the non porous bowl. Iron Sulphate or blood of Kusiya (local variety of fish) may also be added to this ink.

The ink thus prepared is as deep as Chinese black. It is also water proof and does not fade even after long exposure. Traditionally only a dark reddish color or hengul haital was used in the manuscripts. Among the other colors used in Assamese miniatures are the hengaul (Vermillion red), haital (yellow arsenic yellow), kharimati or dhabal (for white) and golden color (either from gold of through mixing red, yellow with La chaloa). Fibers from the fruit of the coconut tree are used for making brushes.

PRESENT STATUS

Nearly 3000 manuscripts are preserved in the Sattras, village Naamghar and house-holders of the Majuli Island. Traditionally, a special storage area called gandhiya bharal was allocated for keeping the manuscripts. Presently, a dedicated space as storage area for manuscripts is located within the Sattras. Manuscripts are wrapped in white paper and with cloth to protect it from dust and insects. Manuscripts have been sorted on the basis on the content. Each set is labeled as per the subject of the manuscript. Brief inventory of the manuscripts exist in each Sattra and an enhanced data base is under process by the governmental organization IGNCA (Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts). In the Sattras of Majuli, 8 important drama (Nat) of Shankaradeva are preserved. The dramas such as Kali damana (Subjugation of the serpent Kali), Patni Prasada (favour to Wives), Keli Gopal (Sport with the milkmaids) Rukmini Harana (Abduction of Rukmini), Parijata Harana (The theft of the flower Parijat) and Rama-vijaya (The Conquest of Rama) are still performed. 

The Hostividyavarnava in Auniati Sattra, the Anadi Patana in Purani Chamaguri Sattra, the Bhakti Ratnawali in Kamalabari Sattra, Chittra Bhagawata and four others in Dakhinpat Sattra, Chitrabhagawata in Bengenaati Sattra are still preserved. The Narasingha and Bah Jengani Sattra and also the Kathbapu Sattra also preserve these pictorial manuscripts. (refer inventory of manuscripts in annexure 5.) The art of manuscript writing is continuing in each Sattra of Majuli Island. It is one of the prime concerns and responsibilities of the Sattras to train and educate the younger generation of the Bhaktas. Proficient Bhaktas are trained under the supervision of the masters of the Sattra. Hence, the Sattras act as main centers for the promotion of traditional form of manuscript writing and painting in its original form.

MATERIAL RESOURCE BASE

Required material for manuscript writing is locally available. Plant species like Sanchi or aloe tree and Silikha are used for preparing base for writing, ink and color respectively. These species grow naturally on the island. The climate and soil condition in Majuli supports their growth. Within the Sattra complex, Sanchi trees are planted by the Bhaktas near the Hatis and the maintenance of these trees is also their responsibility. Silikha trees are also located along the many pathways on the island. Requirement of materials for manuscript writing at the Majuli Island is fulfilled at the local level.

Culture Again.

MUSIC:

ANKIYA GEET:

These are songs which are sung mostly for the dramas since Borgeets are not sung in dramas. The Ankiya Geets have compositions for rhythm etc. They differ from drama to drama and composed mainly for mass entertainment.

BORGEET:

The name Borgeet popularly refers to a special set of devotional songs, set in ragas mentioned in the ancient Indian musical treatises, composed during the late 15th and the early 16th centuries A.D. by Srimanta Sankaradeva and his chief disciple and associate, Sri Sri Madhavadeva, the two prime exponents of Vaisnavism in Assam. Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva referred to their songs as geet only. The adjectival prefix Bar, meaning grand or superior, must have been a later reverential addition by their devout disciples, which might bear upon the musical grandeur of the songs too.


Sankaradeva established a community centre called Namghar for religio-cultural practices like Bhaona and Nam-Prasanga. Bhaona is the enactment of the dramatic works, popularly referred to as Anka, by Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva. Even these Ankas are full of songs, set in ragas, like the Borgeets. A Bhaona is preceded by an elaborate group performance of percussionists playing the Khol (a barrel-shaped drum) and the Tal (the cymbal). The performance involves not only the playing of the instruments but also singing and varied footwork by the percussionists. Nam-prasanga is the common and the chief religious ritual of the Vaisnava cult in Assam which involves the singing of the devotional songs and verses composed by Sankara-Madhava. The Borgeets have been traditionally an indispensable part of this Nam-prasnga.

MUSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF BORGEET

In its traditional style of performance, all the Pancha Dhatus (musical parts) of Prabandha, as described by Pundit Sarngadeva, viz., Udgraha, Melapaka, Dhruva, Antara and Abhoga, are distinctly exhibitted. The traditional performance of Borgeet, in its ideal form, as a part of Nama-prasanga, is preceded by the Gurughat, a song-less orchestra of instruments like Khol, Tal, Negera etc. This songless instrumental prelude corresponds to the Udgraha of Prabandha sangita.


Adau vadya Prabandhanang suddha kutadi nirmitah.
Yah khando vadyate prahurudgrahatang mahattamah. (Sangit Ratnakara)


This songless orchestra is followed by the singing of the Raga as such, that too with the accompaniment of a rhythmic composition of five strokes and one gap played in the Khol, Tal, Negera etc., variously known as Rag-Talani, Rag-Tal, Repani, Jundhara, Ghelani etc. This rhythmic elaboration of the raga may be compared to the Melapaka dhatu of Prabandha that establishes the link between Udgraha and Dhruva. The Tal (cymbals) is played by the singers themselves, while even the Bayans, playing the Khol and the Negera, often take part in the singing.

On completion of the rendering of the raga, there comes a break in the instrumental recital too and the chief singer (Gayan) of the group initiates the singing of the first line of a Borgeet, set in the raga already sung, beatlessly, repeated by the group. This is done twice and on the second repetition of the line by the group, the percussionists make their entry with the Ghat of the tala in which that particular Borgeet is normally started. A tala played with Borgeet comprises three parts: Ga-man (the main body); Ghat (the concluding part); Cok (an embellishment of the Ga-man), which is again followed by the Ghat.


The first two lines of a Borgeet are marked by the symbol Dhrung, the abbreviation of Dhruva. The singing style also differentiates the Dhruva from the rest of the song. As noted above, the first line is first sung beatlessly. Then it is accompanied by only the Ghat of the tala to be played first. The second line of Dhruva is then sung repeatedly in all the three parts of that tala itself. Thus the Dhruva part of a Borgeet is sung only in one tala, whereas each line of the rest of the song, marked as pada is sung with the accompaniment of at least two different talas. This unique style of singing each line of a song with the accompaniment of at least two different talas gives Borgeet a speciality that also reminisces Prabandha Sangita. The Astapadis of Jaydeva's Gita-Govinda are also known to have been sung in a similar style, where each pada was accompanied by a separate tala.


Just after the Dhruva, starts the choral singing of the pada part. The singing proceeds from one line to another without the burden (Dhruva) being repeated. The singing style again differentiates the last line of a Borgeet from the rest of the pada. It is sung repeatedly for several times with the accompaniment of a separate rhythmic composition called Thela-bajana, which in no way conforms to the structure and rhythmic pattern of the other talas played with a Borgeet. There end the song and the percussion. Hence the last line of a Borgeet may be said to correspond to the Abhoga Dhatu of Prabandha, and the rest of the Pada, differentiating the Dhruva from the Abhoga, may be called Antara.


Thus the traditional style of performance establishes Borgeet as a reminiscent of Prabandha Sangita. Unfortunately however, this style of performance is still confined within the Namghar, and in the process of bringing Borgeet out of Namghar as a performing art, the style of performance has been simplified and modernized to such an extent that Borgeet has lost all its special characteristics and has been relegated to the position of light-classical devotional songs. The need of the hour is therefore to teach, learn and perform Borgeet in the traditional style itself, without destroying its musical specialities, though with some modifications only in the interest of making the performance musically perfect.

THE RAGAS OF BORGEET

There are altogether 36 ragas of Borgeet: Ahir, Asowari, Basanta, Barari, Belowar, Dhanasri, Mahur, Syam, Kou, Kalyan, Purbi, Bhatiyali, Gouri, Bhupali, Kanara, Saranga, Suhai, Sindhura, Sri, Gandhar, Tur, Nat, Mallar, Kedar, Kamod, Lalit, Mahur-Dhanasri, Tur-Bhatiyali, Tur-Basanta, Sri-Gouri, Sri-Gandhar, Nat-Mallar, Karunya-Kedar, Sri-Payar, Syam-Gera, Kou-Kalyan-Sindhura.


Out of these a few like Gouri, Kamod, Kedar, Kanara, Saranga, Mallar, Nat, Barari etc. are known to have originated in between the 5th and the 11th centuries A.D. However, the ragas of Borgeet do not tally with their modern counterparts in the North or the South. The difference is in both structure (raga-rupa) and singing style.

Festivals of Majuli:

Major cultural events of the Majuli are an integral part of the life of the people. Seasonal variations and celebration of festivals are correlated. This has a direct impact on the activities and occupation pattern of people of the Majuli. The Sattras are the major centers where the local people assemble in large numbers for the celebration of festivals. These are the occasions when people get united and perform the rituals along with the Sattradhikar and the bhaktas. These are times when people get spiritually and rejuvenated by following the practices. It gives them a better understanding of the Vaishnavite principles and philosophy.


Another aspect of the celebration of festivals is related to the farming practices. The Sattras give equal importance to these festivals. These are also occasions when the villagers and the Sattradhikar along with the bhaktas come together to celebrate the event.
Hence, the Sattras give equal importance to religious events and farming practices and the same ideology is transmitted to the villagers as well, as they are their followers.


Following are the festivals celebrated in the river island of Majuli:-



FALGUTSAV
BOHAG BIHU
ALI AI LIGANG (MISHING)
BISU (DEORI)
BARSIK BHAONA-SABAH/BAR SABAH
BAH-GOROWA
GARAKSHIA SABAH
JANMASHTAMI
SHRI SHANKARADEVA'S DEATH ANNIVERSARY
SHRI MADHAVDEV'S DEATH ANNIVERSARY
PO'RAG (MISHING)
DEO PUJA (DEORI)
BIRTH ANNIVERSARY OF SHRI SHANKARADEVA
KATI BIHU
PAAL NAAM
RAAS UTSAV
DIWALI
AMROK (MISHING)
SAWANIA PUJA(DEORI)
MAGH BIHU
NA KHOWA
NORA-CHIGA (MISHING)

Culture Reload.

WOOD AND BAMBOO CRAFT:

The art of carving miniature statues of deities was introduced among Bhakats (disciples) within Sattras during the time of Shri Shankaradeva himself. Hence, the tradition of carving miniatures of gods, goddesses and their incarnation has been carried on through several generations by the Bhakats of Sattras. Some exquisitely carved figurines can be still seen in some Sattras of Majuli. Wood-carving was one of the fields which in direct response to the movement and the cult of bhakti began to flourish as a major form of art of the people. Guided by an impulse to decorate the places of worship, the local artisans created stylistic variation in the medium of wood. Availability and easy accessibility of wood in the local environment provided support to the development of the art form. It was started and praised by Madhavadeva at the first community prayer hall at Barpeta and flourished side by side the Sattra beside other art forms.

The wooden objects in the Vaishnavite shrines were closely linked with parallel developments in literary tradition. The objects were visual accompaniment to the general literary tradition. The persistent belief around the objects was that they were representations of eighty out of eighty one categories of bhakti that the human beings could visualize on earth5. This was the reason for the display of the objects in the shrines. Wooden idols of Dvarpalas (gate keepers), Jaya, Vijaya, Hanuman and Garuda are seen in almost all the Namghars in different Sattras. Figures of gods and their incarnations seated on their vahanas are usually carved on the door panels and beams of different structures inside a Sattra. Apart from wooden figures, decorative items like Gocha (decorative lamp stand), Chal pira (decorative box bed) and utility products like Khundana (small mortar for pounding betel nut mixture), Tamuli Pira, Dukhari Pira etc are also made by Bhakats in a Sattra as a part of their daily activities from locally available variety of timber in the Sattras.

Like timber, bamboo has a versatile use and plays significant role in rural economy of the people of Majuli. The people of Majuli inherit the knowledge of utilizing diverse bamboo species for different purposes. Different parts of bamboo i.e. roots, stem, leaf etc. are utilized for different purposes. The most versatile use of bamboo is construction of houses in villages, boundary fencing, some local musical instruments (such as flute, takda, Gaganna) and paper making. Bamboo cottage industries are found in the rural area as they produce household items including utensils such as bamboo baskets of different sizes and shapes, bamboo fens, table, chair, bed, bamboo mate, fishing instrument such as polo, Juluki, Jokai, Khaloi, Karahi, Pasi, Dola, kula, saloni, etc. Agricultural appliances such as Moi, Nagal (plough), kathia tum, tomal, mer, duli etc. are also made. Bamboo craft and cane works are the main handicraft trade in Majuli. Bamboo is used to make a variety of objects of daily use and decoration. This craft is practiced by both the Bhakats and the other communities also to make items of daily use.

SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WOOD CARVING

For the understanding of the social significance of the display it would be necessary to look at the areas to which the embellished objects belonged and which greeted the eyes of the beholders. We can break up the areas as below:

• The facade and the doors.
• Walls around the kirtan-ghar.
• The pillars and pillar-capitals.
• The areas inside the prayer-hall.
• The component parts other than the kirtan-ghar.

The entry apse serve as a decorative adjunct to the hall and therefore it drew the attention of the artisans of the past for further decoration with carvings in wood. As a matter of fact the principal door along with the vertical jambs, the lintel and the threshold became the immediate choice of the artisans to embark on decoration. The biographers of the Vaishnava saints relate that the first community building built at Barpeta were embellished with creeper designs at the entrance door. It is also reported that the artisans carved the figures of Jaya and Vijayatwo semi-divine deities and installed both at the door as dvarapalas. The principal door is also called simha-duwar for it contains the motif of a lion at the centre of the door lintel. The symbolism of lion corresponds to God in His omnipotent Name (nama) and the Vaisnavas of Assam conceived the form of Narasimha to illustrate this.

The huts belonging to the Bhakats in spite of their preference for humble living generally possess a single-shutter door containing carvings - floral, vegetal and geometric devices of the local idiom. It has been a practice in some Sattras to decorate the crest of the doors in the prayer-hall with a kapali (like an ornament for the forehead) depicting one of the seven Vaikunthas in molded silver.

The walls of the kirtan-ghar constitute the major areas for the display of wood-carvings. Earlier the walls were made of reeds neatly plaited in innumerable compartments inside flat pieces of wall battens. Each wall was divided again into two horizontal segments - the upper and the lower and was placed in such a manner that adequate vacant space could be provided for display of carved panels in wood. The setting of the panels in the vacant space would make a bend-like girdle in the walls. Sometimes isolated panels of vertical dimensions interspersing the girdle would create a break, pleasing to the eyes, in the linear rhythm of continuous friezes. Sometimes holes were made in the negative spaces in the panels to facilitate air and light inside enabling the visitors to have a look inside the hall.

The carvers derived their subjects mainly from the Bhagavata-Purana and the Ramayana and occasionally from everyday life of the people. They were mostly devoted to illustrating the ten avataras of Vishnu and the Lila scenes belonging to the childhood frolics of Krishna. However, they were not as much concerned with the iconographic details of the child God as with the depiction of the drama of his frolics. In this context, a figure of diminutive size and the titbits of costume here and there would subscribe to present the image of Krishna.

The sattriya artisans were meticulous in their treatment of the avataras of God. They had a distinct programme of carving the avatara figures as visual accompaniment to the literary tradition and embellished the walls and the doors of the shrines whenever they found scope for their treatment. These figures were carved sometimes in high relief and sometimes in the round. The method followed by the sattriya artists in carving sculptures was one of deep incision inside the wooden panel. It is known as charaikhuliya in which charai and khuliya stand for bird and carving respectively: it is similar to the woodpecker's method of digging holes in the tree. In this method, the uncut portions of wood remain raised to give the pattern of the objects. All objects require to be executed in two distinct phases. The first phase is called kondhowa meaning slicing off the surface in flakes. In the final stage further work is done upon the patterns to give finish to the objects. Thereafter the sculptures whether relief or in the round are painted with color.

The intensive practice of carving sculptures in wood was primarily a phenomenon of the sattras which conceived the technique, a style and the subjects of carving. Nevertheless, the art gradually spread to the village level, although it did not develop equally in the grand scale of the Sattras in the embellishment of the village namghars. Each of the Sattras in the past maintained an atelier of artists, which the village namghars lacked. These artisans were professional scribes, master painters, designers and make-up men in the traditional theatre and sculptors, besides being the carpenters responsible for building constructions. Moreover they were psychologically more closely associated with the intellectual development of the sattras, which supported them in creating something grand in whatever medium they took to work.

PRESENT STATUS

In Majuli, both these crafts are practiced by the Sattras and local communities. Some Bhakats who have proficiency in this art are referred to as khanikars. Wood and bamboo variety that is locally available like bambusa balocooa, bambusa tulda, bombax ceiba and mimosops elangi is used for making figurines and utilitarian articles. Majority of the rural economy depends on the usage of bamboo and wood, hence it can be assumed that a large section of population knows how to use these materials in a traditional manner.

The change in use of architectural materials for construction of the Namghar in the past few decades from traditional materials to brick and cement has had a telling effect in the context of wood carving. The result is the total disappearance of carving activities from the society barring the instances of Barpeta Sattra and one or two other sattras in and around Barpeta, where the walls in the prayer-halls have been amply decorated in the past century with objects of wood in continuation of the tradition of the past.

MATERIAL RESOURCE BASE

Cane and other plant species are found to grow well naturally in the peripheral area of the beels. Cane (Calamus spp) species are found to grow as climbers of the other plant species. Plant species such as Lagerstroemia purviflora, Bombax ceiba, Dillenia indica may also be used to make bamboo and cane products. Clinogyne dichotoma, Typha angustifolia, Fimbristylis dichotoma of the wetlands is widely used for making different categories of mat of commercial importance. The availability is in plenty, both inside the Sattras and on the island as the growth of the material resources required for this craft is supported by soil and climate of Majuli.

People of Majuli

Majuli boasts of a multiplicity of ethnic tribes, which have contributed immensely to its rich and colourful cultural heritage. The population of Majuli is a medley of the Brahmins, Kalitas, Kochs, Naths, Koibartas, Mishings, Deori, Sonowol Kacharis, Ahoms. Chutiyas, Suts, Nepalis, Bengalis. Mataks and a sprinkling of Marwaris and Muslims.

MISHING:

With a population of 63, 572, constituting about 42 per cent of the total population of Majuli (according to the 2001 census), the Mishings, who belong to the Burmese branch of the Mongoloids are the most important tribal community of Majuli.

DEORI:

The Deori, believed to be the priestly class of the Chutiyas, who originated from the Tibeto Burmese branch of the Mongoloids have a population of 3,498 in Majuli, constituting 3 per cent of the total population of Majuli (according to the 2001 census). Their homes, farms, village economy and marriage ceremonies are very similar to those of the Mishings. Keeping their own dialect and culture intact, the Deori of Majuli celebrate Bihu, apart from their own Hurairangali, a dance form. They are mainly concentrated in the two villages of Major Deori and Sriram Deori. Major Deori is at a distance of 6 km to the east of Jengraimukh while Sriram Deori is located 7 km to the south-east of Jengraimukh.

SONOWAL KACHARIS:

According to the 2001 census, 1,071 people of this community are in Majuli. Most of them reside in the Sonowal Kachari villages which is about 3 km to the east of Natun Bazar in upper Majuli. This community was engaged in the collection of gold out of the sands of the Subansiri and other rivers of Assam during the reign of the Chutiya and Ahom kings. Haidang, Hagro and Bohua are the main dance forms of the Sonowol Kacharis.

MATAKS: 

The Mataks belong to the historic Moamaria community. In Assamese, 'mat' means decision and 'ek' means one and thus the word 'Matak' means unanimity in decision-making, which was exhibited by this community during the Ahom rule and hence, they came to be called Mataks. Shri Shri Aniruddha Deva is their spiritual leader. In Majuli, people of this community are mainly found in the villages of Dekasensawa and Burhasensowa, Ashok guri etc., which are located 3 km to the north of Rawanapar. The Mataks are also famous for their exposition of the Mridanga, a musical instrument.

LIFESTYLE AND LIVING.

• BOAT MAKING:

Majuli receives heavy rains during the monsoons and the region is prone to biannual flooding of the river Brahmaputra. Hence, water ways are needed and they are the chief mode of transportation in Majuli. Boat making is one of the most common activities practiced on the island. Crafts related to boat making have been practiced in Majuli since the time of the arrival of diverse communities on the Island. Hence, the locals are proficient in the knowledge of making boats. This craft is popular among both Sattras as well as other communities. Auniati and Kamalabari Sattra are famous for making good quality boats in the region. Usually all the families in Majuli have boats which are used mainly during the Monsoons and during floods. Boats are used for commuting from one place to another as they are easily available and an economical mode of transportation.

PRESENT STATUS

Boat making is the main occupation of people from Salmara, Borgayon, Nawsali. 3000 families from these villages are dependent on this traditional craft of making boats. Traditionally, boats were made of Azhar wood which is presently very costly. Hence, the chief material used for


construction of boats is the wood from Semalo tree, Uriam, Outenga, Atrocarpus chaplasha (Samkathal) and Hijal tree which are locally available in plenty. Traditionally, single piece of wood from a big tree was used to make boats called Guttaiya nao. Today boats are made from split timber. Boats are named on the basis of the use they are put to. Traditional hacksaws and blades, chisels and rivets are still used to make boats.

The economics of boat making is dependent on a sustainable cycle of production and consumption of boats on the island. Presently, the production of boats is on a small scale. There is a ready market available in the nearby areas and also within Majuli which helps to sustain this traditional craft.

• FISHING:

Fishing has been the traditional occupation of the Kaivarta community since the time of human habitation on the island. The land form, its water level, aquatic plants and seasonal variations are the guiding and significant factors of the occupation. It plays a significant role in maintaining the natural cycle and hence sustaining the ecological value of the area. Fishing is one of the main sources of livelihood for a section of people in Majuli. It is practiced by mostly scheduled caste and tribes like Mishings and Deories. The different types of water bodies of Majuli Island are the main resources. They include the wet land, marshy land, ponds, rivulets etc. Different fishing techniques have been evolved by man based on the level of water and probability of fishes.

PROCESS

The techniques employed for fishing change with the change in season. Hence, the tools used for fishing also vary according to requirements in each season. Usually during floods fishing is prohibited as it is time for fertilization and migration of fishes into depressions. Occasional fishing is practiced by the communities. They prepare special fishing traps like polo, dingora etc.

Community fishing i.e. by using small baskets is low during this season. Fish traps are especially made and put along the embankments against the water flow. During post monsoon season, water level in different water bodies recedes and it allows fishing. In this season fishermen are predominantly dependent of wet lands and marshy land. The scale of fishing increases and they get used for commercial purposes. Fishes collected from flowing water channels are prepared as dried fish for its consumption at local level as well as for commercial purposes. Bamboo bed is prepared at the river bank for drying of fishes. This is predominantly carried out by Mishing and Deoris. During winter season fishing becomes predominant. Fish is one of the most marketed commodities during this time.

TRADITIONAL TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

Different traditional instruments have been designed at local level for fishing in different areas. The tools have been designed as per the water level and probability of getting fishes of different types. Varieties of fishing nets are as following:

1. Borjal (big net)
2. Ghat jal: this is used when the water level is low.
3. Phansijal: it can catch fish of different sizes.
4. Kerang jal: this used to catch big fish in the rivers.
5. Kewali jal: this is circular in shape and used to collect table fish from wetland and ponds.
6. Looter jal: this is circular in shape and used to collect table fish from wetland and ponds.
7. Tongi jal: this is temporary in nature and used for a single season only. This is most commonly used.

Some of the traditional fish catching instruments used by the communities in Majuli are:

1. Polo: conical shaped instrument used for fishing in shallow waters
2. Jakoi: triangle shaped instrument made of bamboo. It is used for fishing in shallow water. This is mainly used by women folk for catching small fish.
3. Khaloi: it is made of bamboo and cane and mainly used for storing while fishing.
4. Dolonga: this triangular shaped instrument made of bamboo and cane is kept under water (usually in rivers) to catch fish in winters.
5. Chepa/ khoka: this is fixed in narrow paths rough which the fish generally move.
6. Bamichunga: it is made of bamboo and betel nut and specially used to catch a special fish called Bami.

PRESENT STATUS

There are a wide variety of fish that are available in Majlui, for example Alced atthis, ceryle rudis, Bubulus ibis, Dendrcygna Javanica etc. Fishery is one of the most important sectors contributing to the economy, employment generation and trade of Majuli. It is one of the main food items for some people of Majuli. The traditional knowledge base of fishing is known by majority of inhabitants. There are communities whose main occupation is predominantly fishing and they are named accordingly. Majority of residential units of Majuli have a small pond either at the back yard of their house or a pond is located along the road side which feeds three to four residential units. Fish being the staple food item for people is practiced both on a small and a large scale. Large water bodies like beels are used for community fishing. Traditional techniques of fishing are predominantly practiced in Majuli like use of traditional nets and tools to catch fish according to the seasonal variation.

Material Resource Base

The location of the island supports the existence of a variety of fishes. During the annual floods, the fish migrate from the Brahmaputra River into the island, in the beels, wetlands, low lying areas etc. and after the floods recede, Majuli becomes the abode for fishes and it creates a large fishing stock. Nearly 1250 ha of area is under fishery in Majuli with the annual production of 1400 MT. The main fishing centers in Majuli are Jengraimukh, Bali Chapori, Garamur and Kamalabari. More than 50% of the produce is sent to Jorhat and a large percentage of fish produce is sold in the Nagaland fish markets.

However the current regulations and system of management are not conducive to sustainable production from these water bodies. It is resulting in overexploitation and degradation.

The ecological degradation of bils started with the arrival of the water hyacinth a century ago. Rampant growth of this fast-growing weed obstructs the penetration of sunlight, inhibiting plankton growth and contributing to eutrophication by slowing down water currents and depositing debris at the bottom. The second phase of enhanced eutrophication resulted from the construction of embankments along almost the entire length of the river Brahmaputra and many of its tributaries after the devastating earthquake of 1950. These levees substantially reduced the periodic flushing by monsoon floods. The final onslaught on the wetlands has been from human activities such as buffalo and cattle rearing, agriculture and horticulture, and overfishing.

LIVELIHOOD.

POTTERY:

Pottery is a traditional form of cottage industry of Majuli. Pots were generally exchanged for paddy, which is the staple food of the inhabitants of this island. Therefore, especially after the harvesting season the potters travel from village to village to exchange pots for paddy. Historically pots were marketed from Dhuburi to Sadiya along the Brahmaputra. Kumars are the main communities practicing pottery in the Majuli. The Kumars are concentrated mainly in Salmora, Chinatoli and Daksinpath i.e. mostly in the south-eastern area of the Majuli. They use a different technique of pottery making in which the potter's wheel is not used. Clay is beaten by hand to give the form of the utensils. These methods suggest a historic origin of this activity.

PROCESS

Once again, the annual weather patterns prevalent on the island govern the manufacture processes of pottery practiced. During the pre monsoon period, the earth is dug with shallow pits spread wide to store earth during the floods. During the flood season of June to September, alluvial deposition occurs during flood on river banks filling the cavities and dugouts left after extraction of clay. There is predominant infilling of dugouts with clay deposits from heavy silt and sandy loam discharge.

The post flood season in Majuli is the predominant trading time for the 26 varieties of earthen pots produced such as mola, nadia, choru, pati kalah, becha lkalah, chaki etc. The women prepare the puddle with clay, silt sandy mix for primary lump. The making of pots is primarily a woman's job. They give it shape by hand, dry it in the sun and bake it in a furnace. The men prepare the furnace with bamboo, banana leaves and driftwood. Drift wood and other fuel wood are used to fire the furnace for 8 hours and 4 hours alternatively. Burnt furnaces with smoke and bright red appearances continue to dominate landscape for days and nights. The higher water level also helps in transporting the finished products to markets and trade centers.

PRESENT STATUS

Nearly 5000 people depend on this traditional style of pot making for their livelihood. Pottery is a hereditary profession. It is practiced by the successive generations of the community members, irrespective of their castes. Potters are dependent on the river Brahmaputra as it provides clay required for making pots. The river is also the prime means of transportation for trade of the pots. The tools required to make pots are made from locally available timber and bamboo. These are made by the potters themselves.

MATERIAL RESOURCE BASE

Glutinous clay is obtained from the river banks of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries which form a network of water channels which are significant in overall drainage system of the Majuli Island. Clay required for making pots is procured from clay pits about 30 feet deep from the ground along the banks of the river. These get replenished during the annual floods of the river. Hence, the availability of the clay is in abundance. The tools required for making pots are made from the locally available timber by potters themselves.

In high floods, driftwoods from the upper reaches of Arunachal, Naga Hills and other tributaries floating in the Brahmaputra River are caught with boat. The collection continues till night and lasts almost entire flood time. Woods are staked in the front yard of the house, used for firewood in the firing of the kiln. It is a community activity with sharing of firewood between the people.

WEAVING

Weaving is an important aspect of the cultural life of the people of the Majuli Island. Every house irrespective of caste, creed and social status, has a loom. It is a traditional industry that can be traced back to very ancient period. In ancient times, kings are believed to be wearing clothes from Mezankori plant. This plant is used for rearing muga larvae. Weaving is practiced by the inhabitants of Majuli mainly for utility purposes. Traditionally, weaving is done by womenfolk. It is practiced by most of the communities residing in Majuli. Generally a family's requirement of cloth is met by cloth woven at home. The tools required for weaving are indigenous in nature, made from locally available bamboo and timber like looms, ugha, chereki, mako and neathani etc. Raw materials required by weavers are mainly cotton silk from cocoons and mulberry leafs etc.

TRADITIONAL PROCESS

The traditional process of weaving closely follows the annual seasonal changes prevalent in Majuli. Depending on the weather conditions- indoor or outdoor breeding is taken up. Working on the loom indoors or in semi-open or open areas also follows the weather.The mulberry leaves are cut for feeding the paat worm (bombyx textor and bombyx croeci) mostly fed and bred indoors. The endi worm (attacus recini) is reared entirely indoors and castor leaves are fed. The product is endi cloth. The muga silk worm (anthracoea assamoea) is fed on the leave of sum tree (machilus bombycina) and is semi - domesticated because it is reared upon in the trees in open air. However, rearing of worms is mostly practiced in the pre-monsoon period as the women are little less tied up with field work. The Yogi communities on the other hand continue to do the rearing and threading throughout the whole year. In the month of April, during the first day of the Bohag month (the goru bihu) preservation of the seed is done with turmeric and matimah (pulse) paste strewn over, and kept inside an airtight box wrapped with a silk cloth. This process can store the seed for a whole year or for a considerable amount of time. Whenever required the silk cloth is opened and the seeds start to fertilize. Usually the opening and closing happens on the goru bihu day. The paat silk is reared indoor with five moulting stages of 29-34 days for winter and 15-21 days in summer, on a bamboo sieve called chandarai with circular pattern for cocoons to breed. The cocoons are boiled in water and the threads/necha is pulled out, to be washed or bleached with water mixed with burnt dimaru scale (alkaline agent). A fine light yellow thread is produced from this paat polu.

The women folk get busy in the setting of the weaving loom in the month of late February onwards with jatar, neothani etc. The activity gains momentum during late March for weaving cotton cloth (Gamocha -Bihuwan) which is presented to loved and respected ones during Post Bohag bihu the women get involved in paddy fields. Once the seedlings are transplanted, a few women get back to the loom mostly for teaching the technique to the young girls. The climate becomes hot and humid with maximum 86% of RH and temperature 37°C. The items woven are chadar, ribi gasheng etc.The yogis continue to rear the paat silk predominantly. Production of silk items such as kingkhap, Balichori,cheleng are done. The endi and muga need open air and not reared much as this is the high rainfall and flood season. During the post-monsoon season from October to November, the lesser occurrence of rainfall and receding flood waters helps castor seeds germinate. The castor leaves are fed to the endi worm indoors. Moulting takes place for 21 days in winter/cold and 14 days in summer. The cocoons are formed in dry banana or betel nut leaves indoor. The underside of the sum tree is cut clean of shrubby bush. The trees are clustered as grove in the backyard of a homestead. After cleaning the leaves, the air is smoked up with thatch to make it free from insects and ants. Prayer and offerings are made prior to the moulting and leaving of the larvae in the tree. The process of feeding continues for a month with five changes of moult. The cocoons are formed indoor on dry stalks of castor or other plants. There is again a little lull in the weaving activity during the start of the harvesting season starting in December. Womenfolk get involved in production of endi cloth (a warm cloth) from mid and late November. New seedlings are traded or brought from other places. There is fervent participation from the older and the younger women in weaving activities.

MATERIAL RESOURCE BASE

Bamboo and timber are traditionally used to make looms which is easily available in Majuli. Cotton, silk, muga, pat and eri are the type of raw material required for weaving cloth. Cotton is extracted from bombax ceiba or simul tree which is a common species in Majuli. Hence it is available both within Sattras as well as outside it.

Silk, muga and mulberry are reared by locals for getting threads. For rearing these larvae, locals need to plant trees on which they thrive like leaves of Litsea cubeba (Mezangkori) which are eaten by muga larvae. Morinda angustifolia (Asu gas) is used to make red colored dye by mixing its dust with lime. This dye is used in coloring of cotton cloth.

PRESENT STATUS

Majority of families of Majuli Island are involved in weaving. Traditional dresses of males and females are woven at the household level. Hand woven mekhla, chaddars, riha, churia, cheleng, borkapor etc. are some of the dress materials prepared by them.Different communities of Majuli are engaged in weaving. Some of the communities like the Katani and the Yogi or Nath are considered to be weavers' communities. The Mishing community of the Island is known for weaving of silk cloth along with cotton cloth. Silk from cocoons are produced at the household level. Eggs of cocoons are supplied by sericulture department of the government. Their main occupation is weaving along with agriculture. Villages like Sonari Atti, Lezep Chuk village are predominantly dependent on weaving.

Traditionally, the people of Majuli were dependent on hand woven materials which were produced at the level of each household. The elder women of the weaver's family teach the art to the younger generation. Men folk take the responsibility of selling of finished clothes while extraction of silk thread from cocoons and weaving are the responsibilities of women.

In the present context, people have also adopted the style of wearing stitched clothes along with traditional clothes. Hence, the demand of hand-woven clothes is fulfilled at the local level. Marketing of prepared cloth is carried out on a small scale and they are sold at the nearby urban centers.